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@ -1167,6 +1167,236 @@ certification process.
\section{Correctness} \section{Correctness}
\subsection{Taxability arguments}
We assume the exchange operates honestly when discussing taxability.
We feel this assumption is warranted mostly because a Taler exchange
requires licenses to operate as a financial institution, which it
risks loosing if it knowingly facilitates tax evasion.
We also expect an auditor monitors the exchange similarly to how
government regulators monitor financial institutions.
In fact, our auditor software component gives the auditor read access
to the exchange's database, and carries out test operations anonymously,
which expands its power over conventional auditors.
\begin{proposition}
Assuming the exchange operates the refresh protocol honestly,
a customer operating the refresh protocol dishonestly expects to
loose $1 - {1 \over \kappa}$ of the value of their coins.
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
An honest exchange keeps any funds being refreshed if the reveal
phase is never carried out, does not match the commitment, or shows
an incorrect commitment. As a result, a customer dishonestly
refreshing a coin looses their money if they have more than one
dishonest commitment. If they make exactly one dishonest
commitment, they have a $1 \over \kappa$ chance of their
dishonest commitment being selected for the refresh.
\end{proof}
We say a coin $C$ is {\em controlled} by a user if the user's wallet knows
its secret scalar $c_s$, the signature $S$ of the appropriate denomination
key on its public key $C_s$, and the residual value of the coin.
We assume the wallet cannot loose knowledge of a particular coin's
key material, and the wallet can query the exchange to learn the
residual value of the coin, so a wallet cannot loose control of
a coin. A wallet may loose the monetary value associated with a coin
if another wallet spends it however.
We say a user Alice {\em owns} a coin $C$ if only Alice's wallets can
gain control of $C$ using standard interactions with the exchange.
In other words, ownership means exclusive control not just in the
present, but in the future even if another user interacts with the
exchange.
\begin{theorem}
Let $C$ denote a coin controlled by users Alice and Bob.
Suppose Bob creates a coin $C'$ from $C$ following the refresh protocol.
Assuming the exchange and Bob operated the refresh protocol correctly,
and that the exchange continues to operate the linking protocol
(\S\ref{subsec:linking}) correctly,
then Alice can gain control of $C'$ using the linking protocol.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Alice may run the linking protocol to obtain all transfer keys $T^i$,
bindings $B^i$ associated to $C$, and those coins denominations,
including the $T'$ for $C'$.
We assumed both the exchange and Bob operated the refresh protocol
correctly, so now $c_s T'$ is the seed from which $C'$ was generated.
Alice rederives both $c_s$ and the blinding factor to unblind the
denomination key signature on $C'$. Alice finally asks the exchange
for the residual value on $C'$ and runs the linking protocol to
determine if it was refreshed too.
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary}
Abusing the refresh protocol to transfer ownership has an
expected loss of $1 - \frac{1}{\kappa}$ of the transaction value.
\end{corollary}
\subsection{Privacy arguments}
The {\em linking problem} for blind signature is,
if given coin creation transcripts and possibly fewer
coin deposit transcripts for coins from the creation transcripts,
then produce a corresponding creation and deposit transcript.
We say an adversary {\em links} coins if it has a non-negligible
advantage in solving the linking problem, when given the private
keys of the exchange.
In Taler, there are two forms of coin creation transcripts,
withdrawal and refresh.
\begin{lemma}
If there are no refresh operations, any adversary with an
advantage in linking coins is polynomially equivalent to an
adversary with the same advantage in recognizing blinding factors.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Let $n$ denote the RSA modulus of the denomination key.
Also let $d$ and $e$ denote the private and public exponents, respectively.
In effect, coin withdrawal transcripts consist of numbers
$b m^d \mod n$ where $m$ is the FDH of the coin's public key
and $b$ is the blinding factor, while coin deposits transcripts
consist of only $m^d \mod n$.
Of course, if the adversary can link coins then they can compute
the blinding factors as $b m^d / m^d \mod n$. Conversely, if the
adversary can recognize blinding factors then they link coins after
first computing $b_{i,j} = b_i m_i^d / m_j^d \mod n$ for all $i,j$.
\end{proof}
We now know the following because Taler uses SHA512 adopted to be
a FDH to be the blinding factor.
\begin{corollary}
Assuming no refresh operation,
any adversary with an advantage for linking Taler coins gives
rise to an adversary with an advantage for recognizing SHA512 output.
\end{corollary}
We will now consider the impact of the refresh operation. For the
sake of the argument, we will first consider an earlier
encryption-based version of the protocol in which refresh operated
consisted of $\kappa$ normal coin withdrawals where the commitment
consisted of the blinding factors and private keys of the fresh coins
encrypted using the secret $t^{(i)} C_s$ where $C_s = c_s G$ of the
dirty coin $C$ being refreshed and $T^{(i)} = t^{(i)} G$ is the
transfer key.\footnote{We abandoned that version as it required
slightly more storage space and the additional encryption
primitive.}
\begin{proposition}
Assuming the encryption used is semantically (IND-CPA) secure, and
that the independence of $c_s$, $t$, and the new coins' key materials,
then any probabilistic polynomial time (PPT) adversary with an
advantage for linking Taler coins gives rise to an adversary with
an advantage for recognizing SHA512 output.
\end{proposition}
In fact, the exchange can launch an chosen cphertext attack against
the customer by providing different ciphertexts. Yet, the resulting
plaintext is implicitly authenticated becuase after decryption
the customer unblinds and checks the signature by the denomination
key.
If this check does not check out, then the wallet must abandon
this coin and report the exchange's fraudulent activity.
% TODO: Is independence here too strong?
We may now remove the encrpytion by appealing to the random oracle
model~\cite{BR-RandomOracles}.
\begin{lemma}[\cite{??}]
Consider a protocol that commits to random data by encrypting it
using a secret derived from a Diffe-Hellman key exchange.
In the random oracle model, we may replace this encryption with
a hash function which derives the random data by applying hash
functions to the same secret.
\end{lemma}
% TODO: IND-CPA again? Anything else?
\begin{proof}
We work with the usual instantiation of the random oracle model as
returning a random string and placing it into a database for future
queries.
We take the random number generator that drives one random oracle $R$
to be the random number generator used to produce the random data
that we encrypt in the old encryption based version of Taler.
Now our random oracle scheme with $R$ gives the same result as our
scheme that encrypts random data, so the encryption becomes
superfluous and may be omitted.
\end{proof}
We may now conclude that Taler remains unlinkable even with the refresh protocol.
\begin{theorem}
In the random oracle model, any PPT adversary with an advantage
in linking Taler coins has an advantage in breaking elliptic curve
Diffie-Hellman key exchange on Curve25519.
\end{theorem}
We do not distinguish between information known by the exchange and
information known by the merchant in the above. As a result, this
proves that out linking protocol \S\ref{subsec:linking} does not
degrade privacy. We note that the exchange could lie in the linking
protocol about the transfer public key to generate coins that it can
link (at a financial loss to the exchange that it would have to square
with its auditor). However, in the normal course of payments the link
protocol is never used.
\subsection{Exculpability arguments}
\begin{lemma}
The exchange can detect and prove double-spending.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
Merchants and customers can verify double-spending proofs.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
Customers can either obtain proof-of-payment or their money back.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
If a customer paid for a contract, they can prove it.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
The merchant can issue refunds, and only to the original customer.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}
The protocol prevents double-spending and provides exculpability.
\end{theorem}
@ -1184,32 +1414,32 @@ certification process.
\caption{Outgoing traffic from the exchange, in bytes per 5 minutes.} \caption{Outgoing traffic from the exchange, in bytes per 5 minutes.}
\label{fig:out} \label{fig:out}
\end{figure} \end{figure}
\begin{subfigure}{0.45\columnwidth} \begin{figure}[b!]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{db_read.png} \includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{db_read.png}
\caption{DB read operations per second.} \caption{DB read operations per second.}
\label{fig:read} \label{fig:read}
\end{subfigure} \end{figure}
\begin{subfigure}{0.45\columnwidth} \begin{figure}[b!]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{db_write.png} \includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{db_write.png}
\caption{DB write operations per second.} \caption{DB write operations per second.}
\label{fig:write} \label{fig:write}
\end{subfigure} \end{figure}
\begin{subfigure}{0.45\columnwidth} \begin{figure}[b!]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cpu_balance.png} \includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cpu_balance.png}
\caption{CPU credit balance. Hitting a balance of 0 shows the CPU is \caption{CPU credit balance. Hitting a balance of 0 shows the CPU is
the limiting factor.} the limiting factor.}
\label{fig:cpu} \label{fig:cpu}
\end{subfigure}\hfill \end{figure}
\begin{subfigure}{0.45\columnwidth} \begin{figure}[b!]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cpu_usage.png} \includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cpu_usage.png}
\caption{CPU utilization. The t2.micro instance is allowed to use 10\% of \caption{CPU utilization. The t2.micro instance is allowed to use 10\% of
one CPU.} one CPU.}
\label{fig:usage} \label{fig:usage}
\end{subfigure} \end{figure}
\caption{Selected EC2 performance monitors for the experiment in the EC2 % \caption{Selected EC2 performance monitors for the experiment in the EC2
(after several hours, once the system was ``warm'').} % (after several hours, once the system was ``warm'').}
\label{fig:ec2} % \label{fig:ec2}
\end{figure} %\end{figure}
We ran the Taler exchange v0.0.2 on an Amazon EC2 t2.micro instance We ran the Taler exchange v0.0.2 on an Amazon EC2 t2.micro instance
(10\% of a Xeon E5-2676 at 2.4 GHz) based on Ubuntu 14.04.4 LTS, using (10\% of a Xeon E5-2676 at 2.4 GHz) based on Ubuntu 14.04.4 LTS, using
@ -1359,7 +1589,7 @@ We thank people (anonymized).
\newpage \newpage
\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format} \bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format}
\bibliography{taler} \bibliography{taler,rfc,ro}
%\end{document} %\end{document}
@ -1451,228 +1681,6 @@ data being persisted are represented in between $\langle\rangle$.
\item[$\overline{C^{(i)}_p}$]{Public coin keys computed from $\overline{c_s^{(i)}}$ by the verifier} \item[$\overline{C^{(i)}_p}$]{Public coin keys computed from $\overline{c_s^{(i)}}$ by the verifier}
\end{description} \end{description}
\newpage
\section{Taxability arguments}
We assume the exchange operates honestly when discussing taxability.
We feel this assumption is warranted mostly because a Taler exchange
requires licenses to operate as a financial institution, which it
risks loosing if it knowingly facilitates tax evasion.
We also expect an auditor monitors the exchange similarly to how
government regulators monitor financial institutions.
In fact, our auditor software component gives the auditor read access
to the exchange's database, and carries out test operations anonymously,
which expands its power over conventional auditors.
\begin{proposition}
Assuming the exchange operates the refresh protocol honestly,
a customer operating the refresh protocol dishonestly expects to
loose $1 - {1 \over \kappa}$ of the value of their coins.
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
An honest exchange keeps any funds being refreshed if the reveal
phase is never carried out, does not match the commitment, or shows
an incorrect commitment. As a result, a customer dishonestly
refreshing a coin looses their money if they have more than one
dishonest commitment. If they make exactly one dishonest
commitment, they have a $1 \over \kappa$ chance of their
dishonest commitment being selected for the refresh.
\end{proof}
We say a coin $C$ is {\em controlled} by a user if the user's wallet knows
its secret scalar $c_s$, the signature $S$ of the appropriate denomination
key on its public key $C_s$, and the residual value of the coin.
We assume the wallet cannot loose knowledge of a particular coin's
key material, and the wallet can query the exchange to learn the
residual value of the coin, so a wallet cannot loose control of
a coin. A wallet may loose the monetary value associated with a coin
if another wallet spends it however.
We say a user Alice {\em owns} a coin $C$ if only Alice's wallets can
gain control of $C$ using standard interactions with the exchange.
In other words, ownership means exclusive control not just in the
present, but in the future even if another user interacts with the
exchange.
\begin{theorem}
Let $C$ denote a coin controlled by users Alice and Bob.
Suppose Bob creates a coin $C'$ from $C$ following the refresh protocol.
Assuming the exchange and Bob operated the refresh protocol correctly,
and that the exchange continues to operate the linking protocol
(\S\ref{subsec:linking}) correctly,
then Alice can gain control of $C'$ using the linking protocol.
\end{theorem}
\begin{proof}
Alice may run the linking protocol to obtain all transfer keys $T^i$,
bindings $B^i$ associated to $C$, and those coins denominations,
including the $T'$ for $C'$.
We assumed both the exchange and Bob operated the refresh protocol
correctly, so now $c_s T'$ is the seed from which $C'$ was generated.
Alice rederives both $c_s$ and the blinding factor to unblind the
denomination key signature on $C'$. Alice finally asks the exchange
for the residual value on $C'$ and runs the linking protocol to
determine if it was refreshed too.
\end{proof}
\begin{corollary}
Abusing the refresh protocol to transfer ownership has an
expected loss of $1 - \frac{1}{\kappa}$ of the transaction value.
\end{corollary}
\section{Privacy arguments}
The {\em linking problem} for blind signature is,
if given coin creation transcripts and possibly fewer
coin deposit transcripts for coins from the creation transcripts,
then produce a corresponding creation and deposit transcript.
We say a probabilistic polynomial time (PPT) adversary
{\em links} coins if it has a non-negligible advantage in
solving the linking problem, when given the private keys
of the exchange.
In Taler, there are two forms of coin creation transcripts,
withdrawal and refresh.
\begin{lemma}
If there are no refresh operations, any adversary with an
advantage in linking coins is polynomially equivalent to an
advantage with the same advantage in recognizing blinding factors.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Let $n$ denote the RSA modulus of the denomination key.
Also let $d$ and $e$ denote the private and public exponents, respectively.
In effect, coin withdrawal transcripts consist of numbers
$b m^d \mod n$ where $m$ is the FDH of the coin's public key
and $b$ is the blinding factor, while coin deposits transcripts
consist of only $m^d \mod n$.
Of course, if the adversary can link coins then they can compute
the blinding factors as $b m^d / m^d \mod n$. Conversely, if the
adversary can recognize blinding factors then they link coins after
first computing $b_{i,j} = b_i m_i^d / m_j^d \mod n$ for all $i,j$.
\end{proof}
We now know the following because Taler uses SHA512 adopted to be
a FDH to be the blinding factor.
\begin{corollary}
Assuming no refresh operation,
any PPT adversary with an advantage for linking Taler coins gives
rise to an adversary with an advantage for recognizing SHA512 output.
\end{corollary}
We will now consider the impact of the refresh operation. For the
sake of the argument, we will first consider an earlier
encryption-based version of the protocol in which refresh operated
consisted of $\kappa$ normal coin withdrawals where the commitment
consisted of the blinding factors and private keys of the fresh coins
encrypted using the secret $t^{(i)} C_s$ where $C_s = c_s G$ of the
dirty coin $C$ being refreshed and $T^{(i)} = t^{(i)} G$ is the
transfer key.\footnote{We abandoned that version as it required
slightly more storage space and the additional encryption
primitive.}
\begin{proposition}
Assuming the encryption used is ??? secure, and that
the independence of $c_s$, $t$, and the new coins' key materials, then
any PPT adversary with an advantage for linking Taler coins gives
rise to an adversary with an advantage for recognizing SHA512 output.
\end{proposition}
% TODO: Is independence here too strong?
We may now remove the encrpytion by appealing to the random oracle
model~\cite{BR-RandomOracles}.
\begin{lemma}[\cite{??}]
Consider a protocol that commits to random data by encrypting it
using a secret derived from a Diffe-Hellman key exchange.
In the random oracle model, we may replace this encryption with
a hash function which derives the random data by applying hash
functions to the same secret.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
We work with the usual instantiation of the random oracle model as
returning a random string and placing it into a database for future
queries.
We take the random number generator that drives this random oracle
to be the random number generator used to produce the random data
that we encrypt in the old encryption based version of Taler.
Now our random oracle scheme gives the same result as our scheme
that encrypts random data, so the encryption becomes superfluous
and may be omitted.
\end{proof}
We may now conclude that Taler remains unlinkable even with the refresh protocol.
\begin{theorem}
In the random oracle model, any PPT adversary with an advantage
in linking Taler coins has an advantage in breaking elliptic curve
Diffie-Hellman key exchange on Curve25519.
\end{theorem}
We do not distinguish between information known by the exchange and
information known by the merchant in the above. As a result, this
proves that out linking protocol \S\ref{subsec:linking} does not
degrade privacy. We note that the exchange could lie in the linking
protocol about the transfer public key to generate coins that it can
link (at a financial loss to the exchange that it would have to square
with its auditor). However, in the normal course of payments the link
protocol is never used.
\section{Exculpability arguments}
\begin{lemma}
The exchange can detect and prove double-spending.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
Merchants and customers can verify double-spending proofs.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
Customers can either obtain proof-of-payment or their money back.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
If a customer paid for a contract, they can prove it.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
The merchant can issue refunds, and only to the original customer.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
\end{proof}
\begin{theorem}
The protocol prevents double-spending and provides exculpability.
\end{theorem}
\end{document} \end{document}